| Non-Rationalised History NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 6th to 12th) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Chapter 12. Colonial Cities Urbanisation, Planning And Architecture
This chapter examines the process of urbanisation in India under colonial rule, highlighting the distinct features of colonial cities and the social changes that occurred within them. It focuses on the development of three major cities: Madras (Chennai), Calcutta (Kolkata), and Bombay (Mumbai).
These cities originated as small fishing and weaving villages but grew into important trading centers due to the economic activities of the English East India Company (E.I.C.). The Company established offices in Madras (1639), Calcutta (1690), and Bombay (given to the British in 1661).
By the mid-19th century, these settlements had become major cities, serving as centers of British control over India. Institutions were created for economic regulation and to demonstrate British authority. Buildings in these cities reflected their colonial origins and conveyed ideas about power and social relations. Analyzing the architecture of buildings, from official bungalows to laborers' huts, reveals social relations and identities.
Towns And Cities In Pre-Colonial Times
Before exploring colonial urban growth, it's helpful to look at urban centers preceding British rule.
What Gave Towns Their Character?
Towns were often defined in contrast to rural areas. Rural life was based on agriculture, foraging, or animal rearing. Towns, however, were inhabited by artisans, traders, administrators, and rulers. Towns depended on agricultural surplus and taxes from the countryside and were often fortified by walls, symbolizing their separation from rural areas.
Despite the distinction, the boundary between town and country was fluid. Peasants traveled to towns for pilgrimage or during famines. Traders took goods from towns to villages, expanding markets. People sometimes sought shelter in the countryside when towns were attacked.
Source 1: Poet Mirza Ghalib’s description of people of Delhi escaping to the countryside in 1857.
Ghalib describes British forces overrunning city, cutting down people in streets. Roads became battlefields. Rebels held three gates. People fled through these gates in precipitate flight, seeking villages and shrines outside city, waiting to return.
Answer:
This excerpt from Ghalib vividly illustrates how in times of conflict and danger, the countryside served as a refuge for urban populations. When the city became a battlefield and inhabitants faced extreme violence from the occupying forces, people fled through the remaining open gates to seek safety in the "little villages and shrines outside the city." This demonstrates the interconnectedness and fluidity between the urban center and its surrounding rural areas; despite the physical and social distinctions, the countryside provided a vital escape route and shelter in times of urban upheaval, allowing people to "draw breath to wait until such time as might favour their return" to the city.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, Mughal towns (Agra, Delhi, Lahore) were known for concentrated populations, monumental buildings, and imperial grandeur. They were centers of administration and control, where nobles maintained houses, and a wide variety of services were provided for the imperial household, military, and population. Revenues flowed into the capital. Towns were walled, with gardens, mosques, temples, markets, etc., focused on the palace and main mosque.
In South Indian towns (Madurai, Kanchipuram), the temple was the main focus. These were commercial centers; religious festivals coincided with fairs, linking pilgrimage and trade. The ruler was the highest authority and patron of religious institutions. Social order was maintained by officials like the kotwal in North Indian towns.
Changes In The Eighteenth Century
The 18th century saw significant changes due to political and commercial shifts. Erosion of Mughal power led to the decline of Mughal towns (Delhi, Agra). New regional powers emerged, increasing the importance of regional capitals (Lucknow, Hyderabad, Poona, etc.). People migrated to new capitals seeking work and patronage.
Continuous warfare provided employment for mercenaries. Local notables created new urban settlements (qasbah, ganj - small towns/markets). Effects of decentralization varied; some areas saw renewed economic activity, others declined due to war/uncertainty.
Changes in trade networks impacted urban centers. European commercial Companies established bases in Mughal era (Portuguese in Panaji 1510, Dutch in Masulipatnam 1605, British in Madras 1639, French in Pondicherry 1673). Towns grew around these trading centers. By late 18th century, land-based empires replaced by sea-based European empires. International trade and capitalism redefined society.
From mid-18th century, a new phase began. Old commercial centers (Surat, Masulipatnam, Dhaka) declined as trade shifted. British political control grew after Battle of Plassey (1757). E.I.C.'s trade expanded. Colonial port cities (Madras, Calcutta, Bombay) rapidly became new economic, administrative, political capitals. New buildings/institutions, ordered urban spaces, new occupations, people flocked to these cities. By 1800, they were India's biggest cities.
Qasbah: Small town in countryside, often seat of local notable.
Ganj: Small fixed market, dealt in cloth, fruit, vegetables, milk, provided for noble families/army. Both rural market centers.
Names of cities: Madras, Bombay, Calcutta were Anglicised names of villages; now Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata. Originated as fishing/weaving villages, became trade centers for E.I.C.
Kotwal of Delhi: Head of town's police/internal affairs. Jawaharlal Nehru's grandfather was Kotwal of Delhi before 1857 Revolt.
Finding Out About Colonial Cities
Colonial Records And Urban History
Colonial rule generated vast data: detailed trading records, regular surveys, statistical data, official reports on cities. British mapped to understand landscape, topography, control regions. Town maps for planning, commerce, power consolidation. Showed physical features (hills, rivers), quality of houses, roads (for commercial possibilities, taxation strategies).
Late 19th century: municipal taxes collected for town administration. Some responsibilities given to elected Indian representatives (municipal corporations). Activities generated records in municipal record rooms.
Cities growth monitored by headcounts/censuses. First all-India census (1872). Decennial censuses (from 1881) regular source for studying urbanisation.
Census data appears "hard data," but can be misleading. Need to understand who collected data, why, how. What was measured (age, sex, caste, occupation) vs. what wasn't. Classification categories often arbitrary, didn't capture fluid identities (artisan/trader, cultivator/carter). People sometimes refused cooperation or gave evasive answers (suspicious of new taxes, upper-caste women secluded). Claiming higher status identities common (hawkers claiming "trader"). Mortality/disease figures hard to collect (deaths not registered, illness not reported/treated).
Historians use census/official sources cautiously, noting biases, recalculating figures, understanding limitations. Census, survey maps, municipal records help study colonial cities in greater detail than pre-colonial.
What maps reveal and conceal: British maps carefully prepared (Survey of India 1878) but reflected bias. Poor settlements unmarked (seemed unimportant), assumed as available for development, led to evictions. Maps reflect imperial priorities/perspectives.
Trends Of Change
Urbanisation in India sluggish after 1800. Low proportion of urban population, stagnant through 19th century/early 20th (Fig 12.5). Slight increase 1900-1940 (10% to 13%).
Fig. 12.5: Table showing urbanisation trends in India 1891-1941.
| Year | Percentage of urban population to total population |
|---|---|
| 1891 | 9.4 |
| 1901 | 10.0 |
| 1911 | 9.4 |
| 1921 | 10.2 |
| 1931 | 11.1 |
| 1941 | 12.8 |
Answer:
A careful study of this table reveals that urbanization in India was very slow during the period 1891-1941. The percentage of urban population remained below 13% throughout this period, showing only a modest increase over fifty years. There was even a slight dip in urbanization between 1901 and 1911, before a gradual rise. This supports the text's point that urbanization was sluggish and largely stagnant in the early decades of the 20th century. The most significant increase occurred in the final decade shown, between 1931 and 1941, but the overall proportion of urban population remained low compared to many other parts of the world.
Significant variations in patterns. Smaller towns had little economic growth opportunity. Calcutta, Bombay, Madras grew rapidly, becoming sprawling cities. Growth of these three cities as new centers was at expense of other urban centers.
As colonial economy hubs, they were collection depots for Indian manufactures (cotton textiles 18th/19th centuries). After Industrial Revolution in England, trend reversed: became entry points for British manufactures and export points for Indian raw materials. Economic activity nature sharply differentiated them from traditional towns.
Introduction of railways (1853) changed towns' fortunes. Economic activity shifted from traditional towns along old routes/rivers to railway stations. Stations became collection/distribution points. Towns like Mirzapur declined when railway link to Bombay made. Railway workshops/colonies established, developing railway towns (Jamalpur, Waltair, Bareilly).
What Were The New Towns Like?
Ports, Forts And Centres For Services
By 18th century, Madras, Calcutta, Bombay important ports, convenient for collecting goods. E.I.C. built factories (mercantile offices), fortified them due to competition. Fort St George (Madras), Fort William (Calcutta), the Fort (Bombay) marked British settlement areas.
Indians with economic dealings lived outside forts in separate settlements ("White Town" for Europeans, "Black Town" for Indians). Racial distinctions sharpened after British gained political power. Expanding railway network (mid-19th century) linked cities to hinterland, drawing raw materials/labour. Convenient for modern factories due to raw material export, cheap labour (cotton mills Bombay 1850s, jute mills Calcutta outskirts).
Beginning of modern industrial development. Calcutta, Bombay, Madras grew large, but didn't signify dramatic overall economic growth for colonial India. Economies not primarily factory-based; most workers in tertiary sector. Only Kanpur (leather, textiles), Jamshedpur (steel) proper "industrial cities." India didn't become modern industrialized country due to discriminatory colonial policies limiting industrial development.
A New Urban Milieu
Colonial cities reflected new rulers' mercantile culture. Political power/patronage shifted from Indian rulers to E.I.C. merchants. Indians working as interpreters, middlemen, traders, suppliers important. Economic activity near water led to docks, ghats, godowns, mercantile offices, agencies, depots, banks. Inland: administrative offices (Writers' Building, Calcutta). Around Fort periphery: European merchants/agents built palatial houses (European styles), garden houses in suburbs. Racially exclusive clubs, racecourses, theatres for ruling elite.
Rich Indian agents/middlemen built large traditional courtyard houses in Black Town near bazaars. Bought city land for investment. Impressed English masters with lavish parties/temples (establishing status). Laboring poor provided services (cooks, bearers, drivers, guards, porters, workers). Lived in makeshift huts throughout city.
Colonial city nature changed mid-19th century (after 1857). British fear of rebellion: towns better defended, whites in secure, segregated enclaves ("Civil Lines"). Pasture/agricultural fields cleared around old towns for Civil Lines (whites lived). Cantonments (troops under European command) also safe enclaves, separate but attached. Broad streets, bungalows in gardens, barracks, parade ground, church: safe haven/model of ordered life vs. Indian towns ("Black" areas symbolized chaos, anarchy, filth, disease).
British initially focused on White areas' cleanliness. Epidemics (cholera, plague) spreading, killing thousands: need for stringent sanitation/public health measures. Feared disease spread from "Black" to "White" areas. From 1860s/70s: stringent sanitation implemented, Indian town building regulated. Underground piped water, sewerage/drainage. Sanitary vigilance regulated Indian towns.
The First Hill Stations
Hill stations: distinctive colonial urban development feature. Founding/settling linked to army needs (Gurkha War-Simla, Anglo-Maratha War-Mount Abu, Darjeeling from Sikkim rulers 1835). Strategic places for billeting troops, guarding frontiers, launching campaigns.
Cool climate seen as advantage vs. hot weather (feared epidemics). Protected army from cholera/malaria. Became new kind of cantonment in hills. Developed as sanitariums (soldiers rest/recover). Attracted new rulers (approximated European climate). Viceroys moved to hill stations summers (John Lawrence moved council to Simla 1864). Simla official residence of commander-in-chief.
British/Europeans recreated settlements reminiscent of home (European style buildings, detached villas/cottages in gardens). Anglican Church, educational institutions represented British ideals. Recreation shaped by British traditions (social calls, teas, picnics, races, theatre). Railways made hill stations accessible to Indians (maharajas, lawyers, merchants) seeking proximity to British elite. Important for colonial economy: tea/coffee plantations nearby (immigrant labor influx). Hill stations no longer exclusive racial enclaves.
Social Life In The New Cities
For Indians, new cities bewildering, life in flux. Dramatic contrast wealth/poverty. New transport (carriages, trams, buses) allowed living distant from center. Separation of work/residence places. Commuting new experience. Creation of public places (parks, theatres, cinema halls) for entertainment/social interaction.
New social groups formed, old identities less important. All classes migrated to big cities. Increased demand for educated professionals (clerks, teachers, lawyers, doctors, engineers, accountants) led to rise of "middle classes" (access to education: schools, colleges, libraries). Educated expressed opinions in newspapers/journals/meetings; new public sphere of debate/discussion. Social customs/norms/practices questioned.
Social changes difficult. Cities offered opportunities for women. Middle-class women expressed selves via journals, autobiographies, books. Many resented changes to patriarchal norms. Conservatives feared women's education, turning world upside down. Reformers supporting women's education still saw them as mothers/wives, confined to household. Women more visible publicly (domestic/factory workers, teachers, actresses), but faced social censure for moving out of household into public spaces.
Laboring poor/working class: paupers from rural areas sought city employment. Some saw opportunity, others attracted by different life/new experiences. Male migrants left families in villages to minimize city living costs. City life struggle: uncertain jobs, expensive food, difficult housing. Poor created lively urban culture: enthusiastic participants in religious festivals, tamashas, swangs (mocking masters, Indian/European).
Source 2: Swang (popular folk theatre) from Jelepara, Calcutta (early 20th century), describing arrival in Calcutta and observations.
Song describes coming to Calcutta with anticipation, seeing entertaining things. Mentions Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, church, mosque together ("In one vessel you get everything – milk, water and all"). Sees everyone (big/small) showing teeth, speaking English with a flourish.
Answer:
This swang provides a glimpse into the perceptions of a poor migrant arriving in Calcutta. It highlights the city's diversity ("Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, church and mosque") and its mix of traditional and modern/colonial influences ("English in conversation). The phrase "In one vessel you get everything – milk, water and all" is likely an ironic commentary on the city's overwhelming mix of elements and perhaps the superficiality or artificiality of urban life compared to the clear distinctions of village life; it could suggest that in the city, different ideas and ways of life are jumbled together in a confusing or perhaps impure mix. The line about everyone speaking English with a flourish ("showing their teeth," "Jhapat mar ke bolta hai") likely mocks the affectations and aspirations of city dwellers, particularly the upwardly mobile who adopted English as a sign of status, seen as pretentious by the poor migrant. Overall, the swang reflects the migrant's sense of wonder at the novelty and diversity of the city, mixed with a critical or mocking view of its social behaviors and the adoption of foreign customs (English language) as symbols of status.
Segregation, Town Planning And Architecture Madras, Calcutta And Bombay
Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay developed into major colonial cities with distinctive features shaped by segregation, planning, and architecture.
Settlement And Segregation In Madras
E.I.C. set up trading post in Madraspatam (1639, locally Chenapattanam), bought right from local Nayaks. Rivalry with French led to fortification (Fort St George). After French defeat (1761), Madras grew as commercial town. British superiority, Indian merchant subordinate position apparent.
Fort St George: White Town nucleus (most Europeans lived). Walls/bastions distinct enclave. Race/religion determined residency (English, Dutch, Portuguese allowed). No marriages with Indians permitted by Company. Administration/judicial systems favored whites. Development followed needs/convenience of white minority.
Black Town: developed outside Fort. Initially laid out straight lines (colonial towns characteristic), demolished mid-1700s for security zone around Fort. New Black Town developed further north (Fig 12.17). Housed weavers, artisans, middlemen, interpreters (vital role in Company trade). Resembled traditional Indian towns: living quarters around temple/bazaar, caste-specific neighborhoods (Chintadripet for weavers, Washermanpet for dyers/bleachers, Royapuram for Christian boatmen).
Madras grew by incorporating villages, creating spaces for diverse communities. Dubashes (Indians speaking local language/English) agents/merchants, intermediaries. Used government position to acquire wealth, established status through charity/temple patronage in Black Town.
Company jobs monopolized by Vellalars initially, later Brahmins competed (English education). Telugu Komatis (grain trade), Gujarati bankers (18th century) present. Paraiyars/Vanniyars laboring poor. Nawab of Arcot settled in Triplicane (Muslim settlement nucleus). Mylapore/Triplicane earlier Hindu religious centers (Brahmins). San Thome (cathedral) center for Roman Catholics. All became part of Madras. City of wide expanse, low density due to village incorporation.
Pet: Tamil word for settlement.
Puram: Tamil word for village.
Source 3: Excerpt on Madras from the Imperial Gazetteer (1908), describing European residences amidst park-like compounds and rice-fields winding between them, even in native quarters little crowding.
Answer:
The reporter is celebrating a kind of urban space that blends rural and spacious characteristics, particularly found in the European residential areas and even some native quarters, which aligns with the British ideal of a "healthy" and ordered city contrasting with dense, traditional urban areas. They are demeaning crowded urban spaces found in many other towns. The reporter's ideas likely reflect the colonial bias that associated spaciousness, greenery, and low density (as seen in European settlements and some parts of Madras) with progress, health, and civility, while viewing dense, unplanned Indian towns as chaotic, insanitary, and undesirable. Whether one would agree with these ideas depends on one's perspective; while low density and greenery can be beneficial for health and living conditions, viewing density and traditional layouts as inherently inferior reflects a specific cultural and colonial bias that might not value the social vibrancy, community ties, or historical adaptations present in traditional urban forms.
British consolidated power, Europeans moved out of Fort to garden houses along main roads (Mount Road, Poonamalee Road) to cantonment. Wealthy Indians also lived like English. New suburbs created from villages. Possible due to wealthy affording transport. Poor settled close to work places. Urbanization of Madras meant areas between villages incorporated. Madras had semi-rural air.
Town Planning In Calcutta
Modern town planning in colonial cities. Layout of urban space, regulation of land use. Planning inspired by vision of ideal city, reflecting ideology of "development" & state power over urban lives/spaces.
British reasons for town planning in Bengal: Defence. 1756 Nawab Sirajudaula attacked Calcutta, sacked small fort. E.I.C. traders questioned Nawab's sovereignty, refused duties/terms. Sirajudaula asserted authority. After defeat (Battle of Plassey 1757), E.I.C. built new Fort William (couldn't be easily attacked). Cleared site in Govindapur village (traders/weavers moved), left vast open space (Maidan/garer-math) around Fort for clear line of fire vs. enemy.
British moved out of Fort, built residences along Maidan periphery (English settlement in Calcutta). Maidan landmark, first significant town planning measure. History of town planning continued. 1798 Lord Wellesley (Governor General) built massive palace (Government House) in Calcutta (symbolize British authority). Concerned about Indian part (crowding, vegetation, tanks, smells, poor drainage), believed in miasma theory (poisonous gases cause disease). Tropical climate seen as unhealthy. Creating open places (healthier city). Wellesley's Minute (1803): need for town planning, committees. Cleared bazaars, ghats, burial grounds, tanneries. "Public health" idea in town clearance/planning projects.
The line of fire: Pattern of clearing space around fort replicated in other towns. Delhi: Red Fort taken over, army stationed. Buildings near Fort destroyed, substantial empty space created between Indian neighborhoods and Fort. Logic same as Calcutta: direct line of fire essential if town rebels again.
Answer:
The practice of clearing space around fortifications, like the Maidan in Calcutta and the area around the Red Fort in Delhi after 1857, illustrates how concerns of defense significantly shaped colonial town planning. The "line of fire" logic, prioritizing an unobstructed view for cannons/muskets, directly impacted the layout of urban space, leading to the destruction of existing structures and the creation of large empty zones. This military-driven planning displaced inhabitants and physically separated the colonial rulers (within the fort) from the local population, highlighting that security concerns for the colonial power took precedence over existing urban structures and the needs of the local inhabitants.
After Wellesley, town planning by Lottery Committee (1817) using public lotteries for funds. Raised funds for city improvement. Commissioned new map. Road building in Indian part, clearing river bank. Removed huts, displaced poor (pushed to outskirts) to make Indian areas cleaner.
Fig. 12.20 description: A bazaar leading to Chitpore Road in Calcutta. Local communities used bazaar for commercial/social exchange. Europeans saw it as overcrowded/dirty.
Answer:
Looking at Figs 12.8 (Old Court House/Writers' Building), 12.9 (New Buildings at Chowringhee), and 12.11 (Chitpore Bazaar): Fig 12.8 shows a mix of formal European architecture and activities near the Fort, possibly associated with Company administration and early mercantile life. Fig 12.9 shows palatial European houses along the Maidan periphery, suggesting a shift towards elite residential areas with spacious layouts and a focus on leisure (implied by the grand houses). Fig 12.11 (Chitpore Bazaar) shows a dense, mixed-use area with both brick buildings and thatched huts, depicting commercial activity (shops, people carrying goods) and social interaction (people conversing, milling around). These activities across the streets of Calcutta in the late 18th century show: a shift from purely mercantile activity focused within/near the fort to residential expansion for the European elite outside the fort; the emergence of distinct zones (fort/administrative, elite residential, commercial/mixed-use); and the continued vibrancy of local commercial and social life in areas like bazaars, even as new segregated zones were developing. The variety of activities reflects the city's growth and changing social and economic landscape under colonial influence.
Threat of epidemics (cholera from 1817, plague 1896) gave further impetus. Diseases linked to living conditions. Densely built-up areas (working people's huts/"bustis") seen as insanitary, became targets of demolition (obstructed sunlight/air). Poor displaced to distant areas. Frequent fires led to stricter building regulations (thatched huts banned 1836, tiled roofs mandatory).
Late 19th century: official intervention more stringent. Government took over town planning/funding, used to clear huts, develop British parts at expense of others. Racial divide ("White Town"/"Black Town") reinforced by "healthy"/"unhealthy" divide. Indian representatives protested unfair bias. Protests strengthened anti-colonialism/nationalism.
Busti: Originally neighborhood/settlement. British narrowed meaning to poor makeshift huts. In late 19th century, synonymous with insanitary slums in British records.
With empire growth, British wanted cities (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras) as impressive imperial capitals, reflecting authority, grandeur, rational ordering, meticulous execution, Western aesthetic ideals. Cities cleaned, ordered, planned, beautified.
Architecture In Bombay
Embellishing cities with monumental buildings: forts, offices, institutions, structures representing ideas (imperial power, nationalism, religious glory). Bombay (initially 7 islands, joined for space) was commercial capital (premier port, center of international trade). Opium trade to China important (E.I.C. export). Indian merchants/middlemen involved, integrated Bombay to opium growing areas (Malwa, Rajasthan, Sind). Collaboration profitable, led to growth of Indian capitalist class (diverse communities: Parsi, Marwari, Konkani Muslim, etc.).
American Civil War (1861) cut off US cotton. Demand for Indian cotton (Deccan) surged. Indian merchants/middlemen profited. Suez Canal (1869) strengthened Bombay's links to world economy. Bombay government/Indian merchants declared Bombay "Urbs Prima in Indis" ("Most Important City in India"). Late 19th century: Indian merchants invested wealth in cotton mills, patronized building.
Bombay's economy grew mid-19th century: need to expand railways/shipping, develop administration. Many new buildings constructed, reflecting rulers' culture/confidence (European style). Imported European styles reflected imperial vision: Familiar landscape in alien country, symbol of superiority/authority/power, mark distance between masters/subjects.
Initially buildings differed from Indian styles. Gradually, Indians adopted European architecture. British adapted some Indian styles (bungalow from Bengali hut): set on extensive grounds (privacy, distance from Indian world), pitched roof/veranda for cooling, separate servant quarters. Bungalows in Civil Lines: racially exclusive enclaves for ruling classes, self-sufficient life without daily contact with Indians.
Public buildings: three broad styles. Two imported from England:
- Neo-classical (New Classical): Geometric structures, lofty pillars. From ancient Rome, revived in Renaissance. Appropriate for British Empire (grandeur of imperial Rome for imperial India). Mediterranean origins suitable for tropics. Town Hall (1833), Elphinstone Circle (1860s, cotton boom), Horniman Circle (from Italy, covered arcades for shade) in this style.
- Neo-Gothic (New Gothic): High-pitched roofs, pointed arches, detailed decoration. From medieval northern Europe (churches), revived mid-19th century England. Adapted for Bombay infrastructure (Secretariat, University, High Court). Indians donated money (Sir Cowasjee Jehangir Readymoney for University Hall, Premchand Roychand for Rajabai Tower). Indian merchants adopted style (progressive, help make Bombay modern).
Most spectacular Neo-Gothic: Victoria Terminus (Fig 12.27) (station/headquarters of G.I.P. Railway). British invested in station design (proud of railway network). Buildings dominated skyline, uniform Neo-Gothic style gave character.
Early 20th century: new hybrid style, Indo-Saracenic. Combined Indian (domes, chhatris, jalis, arches) and European. "Indo" for Hindu, "Saracen" European term for Muslim. Inspiration: medieval Indian buildings. British used to prove legitimacy. Gateway of India (Fig 12.29) (Gujarati style, for King George V/Queen Mary 1911 visit) famous example. Taj Mahal Hotel (Jamsetji Tata) similar style, symbol of Indian enterprise, challenged British exclusive hotels/clubs.
More "Indian" localities in Bombay: traditional decoration/building styles. Lack of space, crowding led to unique building type: chawl (multi-storeyed single-room apartments, long corridors, courtyard). Housed many families sharing spaces, helped neighbourhood identity/solidarity.
What Buildings And Architectural Styles Tell Us
Architecture reflects aesthetic ideals and variations. Buildings also express builders' vision, particularly rulers expressing power. Studying architecture helps understand power conception and expression through structures (materials, pillars, arches, domes, roofs).
Architectural styles not only reflect but also shape tastes, popularize styles, mold culture. Many Indians saw European styles as modernity/civilization symbols, adopted them. Some rejected European ideals, kept indigenous styles. Others combined Western/local elements. Late 19th century: efforts to define regional/national tastes vs. colonial ideal. Styles changed via cultural conflicts. Architecture helps understand cultural/political conflicts (imperial vs. national, national vs. regional/local).
Timeline
Timeline: Some Major Mughal Chronicles and Memoirs
Lists key Mughal historical texts and their approximate composition/publication dates.
Timeline: Landmarks in the History of the Mughal Empire
Lists major political events and reigns from Babur to Bahadur Shah II.
Timeline: Some Major Religious Teachers in the Subcontinent
Lists prominent religious figures and their approximate living periods (c. 500 CE - 1700 CE).
Timeline: Major Religious Developments
Lists key religious periods/events from early Vedic to early temples.
Timeline: Major Landmarks in the Study of the Mahabharata
Lists key events in the scholarly study and publication of the Critical Edition.
Timeline: Major Advances in Epigraphy
Lists significant developments in the study of inscriptions from 18th to 20th centuries.
Timeline: Landmarks in the Discovery and Preservation of Early Monuments and Sculpture
Lists key events in archaeology and preservation efforts from 19th century onwards.
Timeline: Major Political Developments
Lists key political events from c. 600 BCE to 8th century CE.
Timeline: Some Travellers who Left Accounts
Lists prominent travelers to India and their approximate lifespans/periods of visit.
Timeline:
Lists key dates related to the establishment and development of colonial rule and cities.
ANSWER IN 100-150 WORDS
Questions requiring short essay answers on aspects of colonial cities, drawing upon evidence from the chapter.
Write a short essay (250-300 words) on the following:
Questions requiring more detailed essay answers on specific themes, using evidence from the chapter.
Map work
Map-based activity related to cities mentioned in the chapter.
Project (choose one)
Suggestions for independent projects involving research on a small town's history or comparing building types in a local area.
If you would like to know more, read:
Suggestions for further reading on the topic.
For more information, you could visit:
Suggestions for online resources.
Credits for Illustrations
List of sources for the images used in the chapter.